HOW EFFICIENT ARE REGULATIONS AGAINST ILLEGAL GAMBLING IN SPORTS
W1566744Mohamed Ahmed
Introduction
Over the past decades, gambling has always mostly been considered to be a
crime around the world except in Las Vegas, New Jersey, Atlantic City, and Nevada.
Currently, it still being legalised and is practised in more and more countries. It
encompasses numerous types of gaming, ranging from horse racing, poker rooms,
casino, and the most current practice’s sports betting. 1 Nonetheless, some forms of
gambling have been legalised while others are still illegal. It has evolved to include other
forms of activities like staking for sports wagers. Legally, it means playing for a chance
for a prize, making or accepting a bet on something and participating in a lottery. 2
The definition varies depending on different locations around the globe; however,
it necessitates wagering or betting on the possible outcome which is usually based on
chance. The motive for gambling is always to win something, mostly monetary value.
On the other hand, illegal gambling can be termed to be any gambling which is
expressly prohibited by a state law or regulation. 3
Gambling and the Public Interest
In the recent past, gambling regardless if played on the internet platforms or
physical betting shops has become very popular across the globe. For instance, it is a
familiar scene for a poker ring to entices players by giving them a chance to win big;
however, the primary goal is usually to draw people to the business. Gambling and
sports betting worldwide have seen nations gain a lot of tax revenues from these
activities. Despite it potentially helping an economy financially, it should be considered
1 Mark Theoharis, ‘Illegal Gambling’ (www.criminaldefenselawyer.com, 2019)
<https://www.criminaldefenselawyer.com/crime-penalties/federal/Illegal-Gambling.htm> accessed 2 April
2019.
2 Gambling Act, Section 3
3 Ibid 1
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to be an illegal activity primarily because it destroys most lives as compared to the
assistance offered.
Bose (2017) indicated that sports betting have gradually crawled out of the
shadows; even leading sports channels such as the ESPN have embraced the business
and even have betting specialists who broadcast information on sports betting and
wagering. 4 Accordingly, supporters of gambling activities are attracted to watch these
channels as it has a great interest. Accordingly, today, it is evident that sports wagering
is at its most high and more prevalent than ever experienced before; it has reached a
point it is becoming a promising venture. Globally people are very intrigued by the fact
that sports betting and wagering can potentially win a lot of money.
Such aspect is outright a bad choice for the UK to legalise sports betting; it
increases the chances of illegal gambling. Arguably, more and more people will see the
potential benefit and success in sports betting and get involved in the activity. However,
most of these individuals tend to have little knowledge of the betting systems, and
hence they end up wrongfully initiating the activity. However, it is important that players
have the privilege and get to choose the games to bet on themselves. 5
According to Carran, regulation of gambling is largely driven by the
conceptualisation of gamble-related harm which are in two reasons public health and
the paradigm of economic considerations. 6 In the interest of public health, governments
look at negative gambling participation. On a localised level it affects an individual, the
immediate family and close social circles which affect the society at large in terms of
4 Lopez-Gonzalez H, Estévez A, Griffiths MD. Marketing and advertising online sports betting: A problem
gambling perspective. Journal of Sport and Social Issues. 2017 Jun;41(3):256-72.
5 Ibid.
6 Malagorzata A. Carran, The Concept of Vulnerability and gambling-related harm, 2018
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welfare. When such effects are in the form of unemployment then this transcends to
increase in criminal activities. On the economic end, gambling is regulated to be to
ensure that the circulation of money doesn’t flood the market.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Sports Betting
According to Humphrey (2012), casinos businesses and gambling clubs
fundamentally bring much more jobs into the marketplace; however, these jobs can also
be considered to be designed not to benefit the workers or their families. 7 These jobs
are set to benefit the owners of the gambling businesses who can access the public’s
money through sports betting and wagering. From another viewpoint, lotteries have
been established to be a strategy used by states to make profits; nonetheless, the gains
are accompanied by adverse outcomes.
Mostly, states benefit from the profits collected in the form of tax revenues;
however, the poor are the most likely demographic to participate in these sports betting
and gambling activities. As such, it can be termed to be an additional expense on the
poor, who are already financially impeded. Humphrey (2012), stated that the monetary
impact can potentially harm the poor and might be terrible at the same time, the social
and administrative effects are more pernicious. 8
Humphrey (2012), continued to say that there also exist numerous adverse
impacts and effects of sports betting on the government. 9 Undoubtedly, gambling is
addictive, just like drugs; nonetheless, according to the UK law, it is still a legal and
7 Humphreys BR, Perez L. Who bets on sports? Characteristics of sports bettors and the consequences
of expanding sports betting opportunities. Estudios de economía aplicada. 2012;30(2).
8 Ibid
9 Ibid
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business activity in the country. Moreover, the fact that the government gets certain cuts
in the form of taxes only implies that the government support the events. Subsequently,
the public can term this as a wrongful act, precisely because the lower-white collar class
and the poor in the society, are the ones who are attracted and addicted to the activity.
Fixed matches and other illegal arrangements have significantly impacted sports
betting, and this is founded on the fact that, since wagering on sporting activities is a
legitimate way to make monetary profits, people tend to embrace the unlawful and
sports wrongdoings just to reduce the government mental burden on their winnings. For
instance, players may indulge in point shaving atrocities only to increase their betting
rewards. Consequently, these monetary along with the dangerous legislative impacts of
sports betting can be deduced to be repulsive, all in all, the adverse social effects are
the most significant impacts felt as a result of sports betting. 10
One of the greatest weakness of sports betting and wagering is that it is
attractive and addictive to many individuals; which the government considers to be an
innocuous type of excitement. Considering the increased accessibility of sports betting,
it has turned out to be one of the most dangerous and addictive than any other form of
addiction known to man. Arguably, sanctioned betting can be described to have only
turned out to be a stimulator for illegal sports wagering. The argument is based on the
fact that in illegal betting, the public is lured in by the exciting guarantee that they can
potentially win remarkable huge stakes (Humphrey, 2012). This is the explanation
behind the investment rate increment which has been consistent and pointedly caused
by the increased quantity of lawful sorts of sports betting (Humphrey, 2012). Therefore,
10 Ibid.
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because of the increased accessibility of gambling and betting, the public (players) have
ended up dependent on the activity turning it into a habit.
Humphrey (2012) continued to assert that, the unsafe social effects of sports
gambling is that it compels the poor to remain poor, whereby betting activities can
potentially demolish families and lives as habitual speculators can lead to severe
issues. 11 Sports gambling and betting usually have the ghastly probability of winning;
nonetheless, the poor in the society frantically need the wins, thus consistent betting
attempts filled with huge expectations of significant gains that would assist them in
hauling out of their financial problems. Besides, one in a while, they win, and the
amount of cash they pour in an invest eventually causes them to remain poor. As such,
it is considerable than an individual may not be poor. However, habitual betting would
subsequently cause a person to become poor, rapidly. Another negative social impact
of sports betting is the imminence of habitual risk-takers, leading to dependence to
betting. Over time, betting becomes an addiction of which the medication is to bet
continuously without quitting irrespective of the outcomes.
Humphrey (2012) also believed that most risk-takers usually begin the sports
gambling and betting habit within their high scholar years. 12 Subsequently, most end up
owing over $80,000 to debtors, considering their increasing life responsibilities and
obligations, they are already in an immense weight on their lives and families.
Subsequently, the last weakness associated with the adverse social impacts of sports
gambling is that it annihilates families. Accordingly, the measure of obligations tagged
on an impulsive risk-taker is that they end up putting an excess strain on the little left of
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
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the family to bail out the obligations. In essence, these players are forced to discard the
little cash they are left with as a way of fulfilling their dependence. Unfortunately, on
many occasions, the obligations become excessive and sometimes lead to separation
(with spouses) thus destroying families. The social effects of sports gambling and
betting are remarkably bad, and all its impacts lead to terrible outcomes.
The Problem of Illegal Gambling in Sports
Illegal gambling in sports is among the widely known illicit activities around the
globe. Inherently, gambling cannot be termed as a financial issue; instead, it best fits
the definition of an emotional problem that is accompanied by economic concerns and
consequences. 13 Studies have indicated that gambling is associated with psychological
issues where the brain reward system is stimulated in the same manner experienced
with alcohol and drugs, hence leading to addiction. 14 Therefore, individuals who
encounter the gambling problem tend to chase bets which eventually leads to financial
losses, depletion of savings, accumulation of debts, hiding the betting behaviour, and at
heightened scenarios compelling players to resort to fraud and theft to fulfil their
addictions.
Before one is addicted to gambling, individuals usually go through four stages, 15
Where the initial stage is the winning phase where the players experience huge
winnings. Consequently, this leads to excitement and a positive attitude and perspective
13 Boos EM. Fraudduel and Draftkrooks: Chance or Skill. DePaul J. Sports L. & Contemp. Probs..
2016;12:83.
14 Schreiber L, Potenza M, Grant J. Gambling Disorder and Other “Behavioral” Addictions. Clinical
Textbook of Addictive Disorders. 2016 Mar 16.
15 Bonfils NA, Grall-Bronnec M, Caillon J, Limosin F, Benyamina A, Aubin HJ, Luquiens A. Giving room to
subjectivity in understanding and assessing problem gambling: A patient-centered approach focused on
quality of life. Journal of behavioral addictions. 2019 Jan 18:1-1.
W1566744Mohamed Ahmed
towards sports gambling. The next stage is the players begin to spend a considerable
amount of money and time on gambling activities – this is usually at the losing phase,
where the gamblers experienced increased preoccupation in gambling. The losing
streaks lead to isolation, where the players begin to skip work, borrowing cash to bet,
gambling alone, resorting to fraud and inevitably debts. Desperation phase is the next
stage, where the losing players begin to chase their losses; during this period, the
gamblers have typically lost all control over their betting behaviour. As such, they start
to feel guilty and ashamed of the behaviour; however, they are already in too deep,
addicted, and cannot stop. Also, at this stage, the negative impacts of compulsive
sports gambling have caught up with them, leading to losing employment, being
arrested and getting divorced. The last step is the hopeless phase, where the
gamblers are considered to have hit the “rock bottom.” At the time, they understand that
nobody is in a position to assist them or cares; they do not care whether they live or die.
At this phase is also when they end up abusing alcohol and drugs to numb the pain.
Nonetheless, in these modern times, there exist many considerable avenues and
opportunities through which individuals can take part in organised illegal gambling,
depending on the diverse gambling culture and laws. 16 In the UK, just as in most
countries, gambling is generally regulated by the governmental regulations and laws on
which illegal forms of sports betting and gambling as a whole is established. Therefore,
the associated rules and betting cultures have continuously triggered illegal gambling,
luring more and more bettors regardless of the related risks of violating the state laws.
Arguably, concerning other forms of criminal and unlawful undertakings, illegal gambling
16 Gordon R, Gurrieri L, Chapman M. Broadening an understanding of problem gambling: The lifestyle
consumption community of sports betting. Journal of Business Research. 2015 Oct 1;68(10):2164-72.
W1566744Mohamed Ahmed
is a lesser crime with minor consequences; however, when properly organised and
executed it plays well through the enormous winnings.
Regulations Against Illegal Gambling in Sports
Illegal Gambling Regulation Historical Context
Sport gambling regulations are comparatively straightforward in the United
Kingdom; the laws are founded on the Gambling Act 17 which dictates how gambling and
sports betting should be conducted in a legal and safe manner. Gamblers in the UK are
enticed by betting activities precisely because of the world-famous English Premier
League. Moreover, sports betting has been made much easier thanks to technological
advancements which has enabled the business to thrive by providing excellent sports
books and online platforms. All in all, gambling is a legal activity in the UK. The
country’s first ever regulation against illegal gambling was enacted back in the 1960, the
Betting and Gaming Act of 1960. Despite its restrictive nature, the very first casino
which operated legally was established in the following year, 1961. Conversely, the
newly formed act of 2005, only loosened things up a little, making sports gambling a
legal undertaking and thus increment in the activity than before.
Present-Day Gambling Laws
The gambling in the UK is arguably designed to manage and control illegal gambling in
sports and at the same time, allow the government to adequately regulate the gambling
and sports betting industry, making it safer for bettors to place bets. 18 About the
legislation, the government through the Gambling Commission can control gambling
operators through licensing and fines within the principal concepts. These concepts are
17 2005, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/19/contents
18 Lopez-Gonzalez H, Estévez A, Griffiths MD. Marketing and advertising online sports betting: A problem
gambling perspective. Journal of Sport and Social Issues. 2017 Jun;41(3):256-72.
W1566744Mohamed Ahmed
provided for under the Gambling Act 19 , part 1 where it provides for licensing objectives
which is preventing gambling from being a source of crime or disorder, being associated
with crime or disorder or being used to support crime; ensuring that gambling is
conducted in a fair and open way, and; protecting children and other vulnerable persons
from being harmed or exploited by gambling. 20 It also allows for the licensing authorities
in England, Wales and Scotland. 21 It defines what gambling 22 is and further distinguishes
it to remote gambling 23 .
The Act also establishes the Gambling Commission whose overall mandate is to
safeguard consumers and the wider public by ensuring that gambling is fair and safe. 24
Vulnerable individuals and children within the society are the targeted consumers who
may be directly exploited or harmed by gambling. The government also aims to prevent
sports wagering from becoming a disorder or a source of income, being used as or to
support criminal undertaking. For example, one of the most relevant regulations is how
the law emphasises on protecting vulnerable adults and children from exploitation; the
regulations consist of a self-exclusion option for gamblers with addiction along with a
minimum legal age. 25
In the UK, an individual has to be 18 years and above to participate in gambling
and sports betting activities. The most commonly accessed gambling platforms are the
19 ibid
20 Section 1
21 Section2
22 Section 3
23 Section 4
24 Gareth Davies, Gambling Commission Report on Gambling Regulation: problem gambling and protecting
vulnerable people, 2020
25 Schreiber Z. The Time Is Now: Why the United States Should Adopt the British Model of Sports Betting
Legislation. Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. LJ. 2016;27:353.
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sportsbooks and online casinos, all of which are legally obligated to authorise only
customers who are at least 18 years of age. This can only be accomplished by requiring
an ID or other additional supporting documents if deemed necessary. However, even
this rule has exceptions, for example, in the case of lotteries, football pools and the case
of scratch cards, even children are allowed to participate since the minimum age of
participation is reduced to 16 years. In case this regulation is violated, there are serious
consequences attached to the violation of minimum age rule. In the UK, a person can
be denied his/her winnings if they are established to be not of the required age.
The National Lottery rule in the UK is a restrictive regulation which has been in
existence since 1993 and regulates several games including the Thunderball and Lotto.
For example, one of the rules associated with these lotteries is that 28% of the total
winnings will be deducted to fund the “Good Causes”, an initiative which has been
reported to have raised more than £6 billion to date. 26 The “Good Causes” initiative is
usually directed to the volunteer and community organisations and cannot be used to
fund initiatives and services which the government has a constitutional obligation to
provide. Besides the 28% deduction, an additional 15% and 12% are also respectively
deducted as federal tax and the cost of selling the ticks and running the lottery.
Arguably, winning the lottery is already a long-shot, to worsen, in case a person wins it,
half of the prize is deducted, as highlighted above; a proposition many consider to be
terrible and improper. As such, many gamblers prefer taking their cash to the casino
where they can potentially win big stakes, and the deductions are almost fifty times
26 Orford J. The Regulation of Gambling in Early Twenty-First Century Britain: Liberalisation and Its
Consequences. in gambling Policies in European Welfare States 2018 (pp. 241-257). Palgrave
Macmillan, Cham.
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smaller. Thus the regulations aim to control gaming operators rather than the
individuals. However, the commission has the mandate to investigate an individual
where it so believes that the behaviors of the bettors is related to or may constitute
criminal activity.
.
Licensing of Gambling Businesses
In the UK, businesses which provide commercial and remote gambling services
(for example, online casinos and betting sites) are required to acquire a licence, before
setting up and operating within Great Britain. However, there also exist numerous
exemptions, for example, certain gambling games, e.g. Poker, is exempted from the
regulation; however, they are expected to follow the code of practice which substantially
limits their maximum and minimum stakes and prizes. 27 In another scenario, in the UK,
private gaming is tolerated by the law, ie in cases where some individuals organise
gambling undertaking within places where the general public are not permitted to
access. Nonetheless, the legal guideline in relation to private gambling is still perceived
to be complex and need to clarify the extent of gambling activities as well as the
associated arrangement made. Consequently, the Gambling Commission recommends
that before organising private gambling events, individuals should seek out legal
guidance.
Outlook: The Public Interest and Illegal Gambling in Sports
Facts About Betting and Illegal Gambling in Sports in the UK
Before discussing the perspective of this paper, it would be of significance to
state the following facts; gabling regulations have been operational since 1961,
27 Ibid.
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however, legalisation of the activity has led to changes in the rules of engagement
which has led to the opening of over 10,000 betting shops and platforms. 28 Sports
betting and gambling is permitted on all games and wagers can be placed in both online
betting sites and betting parlours. Betting advertisements are also allowed on the sports
stadiums and team kits, and betting itself is permitted to take place within the stadiums
in which the sporting activities are taking place. 29 Most betting businesses have
partnered with major sports venues to operate roaming and booths within the stadiums.
Concerning the profits collected through gambling activities, the Gambling Commission
reported that between April 2016 and March 2017, the Gross Gambling undertakings
yielded over £13.8bn ($18.7 billion) throughout the UK. 30
Sports gambling has also resulted in ‘match-fixing’, where the contending teams
are drilled into ensuring a certain outcome is achieved. For example, in the year 2009,
pan-European law enforcement officers established that about 200 matches from
football leading competitions, including the UEFA Champions League and UEFA
Europa League competitions, were manipulated after the match officials, coaches and
players were found to have received bribes. 31 Such encounters have led to other
positive effects related to illegal sports gambling in the UK. Undoubtedly, the English
Premier League is one of the most celebrated and watched sports competitions in the
UK and the whole world. Also, part of its commercial success is because of the
attractiveness associated with sports betting activities. Nonetheless, the UK government
28 Lopez-Gonzalez H, Griffiths MD. Is European online gambling regulation adequately addressing in-play
betting advertising?. Gaming Law Review and Economics. 2016 Aug 1;20(6):495-503.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
31 Spapens T, Olfers M. Match-fixing: The current discussion in Europe and the case of the Netherlands.
European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice. 2015 Nov 17;23(4):333-58.
W1566744Mohamed Ahmed
has not instituted sturdy good-practice measures. Conversely, in line with the Gambling
Act of 2005, betting bookmakers are compelled to share all relevant information about
illegal sports betting activities to the sports authorities.
Additionally, according to the 2006 Fraud Act, sports corruption, the unlawful
match-fixing arrangement is considered to be a criminal offence. This position was
taken in 2010, where four cricket players were criminally charged with conspiracy under
the Prevention of Corruption Act of 1996, Criminal Law 1996, Criminal Act law 1977 and
the gambling Act. According to the ramifications of match-fixing seem to take three
forms penalties from governing bodies, criminal sanctions and reputational damage. 32
In a report by Sports Betting Integrity Panel, the ultimate responsibility to keep sports
clean from match fixing lies with the governing bodies. 33
Rationale Whether Regulations Deters the Public Interest on Illegal Gambling in Sports
Besides the comparatively well-defined policies and their functions, the government
needs to broaden the regulation manifestation and scope and how they manage illegal
sports gambling in the society as well as their effects. However, the corresponding rules
and legislation can be termed to be sufficient in regulation to restrict the operations of
gambling businesses. For instance, the licensing has enabled the government to
considerably control the benefits as well as the costs of gambling. Understandably, the
simple and straightforward underage policy regulates and sufficiently prevents underage
engagement in sports betting while promoting the contentious and ambitious
conventional social values.
32 Kevin Carpenter, Match-Fixing-The Biggest Threat to Sports in the 21 st century?, (2012)
33 Report of the Sports Betting Integrity panel Chapter 2b, February, 2010
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Inherently, it can be deduced that if the government moves to introduce the
gambling acts, the straightforward regulations adequately meet the intended purpose
which is to attain specific goals while limiting the general public’s mind. Nonetheless,
even the relatively straightforward rules are not all clear and require coherent guidance
before indulging in gambling activities. Also, it can be debated that some sections of
gambling regulations are not well thought-out or does not meet their primary purpose
which is safeguarding the broader general public from exploitation from businesspeople.
In the same line, the existing regulation can be criticised to only disconnect decision and
products of incremental, often responding to arising issues instead of being founded on
long-term goals and safeguarding against risks.
From another viewpoint, factors which make the existing regulations not to deter
participation in illegal gambling in sports sufficiently is the existence of numerous
decision makers. The different levels such as the federal government, states and local
officials all have dependent gambling policies, which have exemptions to the overall
gambling regulations. As such, to adequately deter illegal sports betting, these
decisions should coordinate with each other and operate under a single overall rule. For
example, the issues of unlawful sports gambling as well as its effects on the individuals
and societies, can be perceived to be monolithic. In essence, these difference
demographics usually have differing interests, concerns and sets of issues which would
require separate regulatory structure and goals. Therefore, the dynamism of the
regulations should continuously adapt to the changes over time. For example, the rapid
technological advancements continually produce different and novel forms of illegal
sports betting; often these advancements exploit the weak point of the prevailing
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governmental regulations and restrictions – hence the policy should also be flexible and
adaptive.
Another worrying aspect of the current regulation policies as well as their
effectiveness to deter the public from engaging in illegal activities; is that the decision
makers are chasing the betting industry instead of leading the evolution and growth.
Also, the regulations can be deduced to be much more focused on less central
concerns and neglect the broader public interests. Arguably, one of the greatest
criticisms of the existing regulations is that they are focused on short-term pursuits of
profits and revenues, instead of long-term effects revolving on the general public’s
interests and welfare.
The prevailing regulation in the UK can be termed to deter participation of illegal
gambling in sports, to a considerable level. In turn, the government along with the
regulatory policies should constantly adapt and change according to the transformations
in the industry; otherwise, mismatches will only increase participation. The Gambling
Commission should inherently focus on identifying the novel innovations and changes in
the betting industry, to match the illegal undertakings while minimising the costs and
optimising benefits.
Conclusion
In summary, sports betting along with the corresponding illegal gambling are both
new global phenomenons; thanks to technological advancements, such as enhanced
online and mobile betting platforms. As such, the industry is dynamic and fast-growing;
likewise, regulations should also be flexible and adapt in order to keep up with these
changes. Conversely, if the regulations are adequate, gambling can provide incredible
economic opportunities, lead to employment and additional tax revenues to the
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government. Nonetheless, the principal objective of all gambling regulatory systems is
to be adaptive in protecting the integrity of the business and sports, as well as the
interest of the general public. Subsequently, the betting operators, stakeholder and
sports fraternity will all benefit in a crime-free business environment. The regulations
should also focus on the adverse financial social and administrative problems
associated with gambling and illegal sports betting.
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Bibliography
Report of the Sports Betting Integrity panel Chapter 2b, February, 2010
Bonfils NA, Grall-Bronnec M, Caillon J, Limosin F, Benyamina A, Aubin HJ, Luquiens A.
Giving room to subjectivity in understanding and assessing problem gambling: A
patient-centered approach focused on quality of life. Journal of behavioral
addictions. 2019 Jan 18:1-1.
Boos EM. Fraudduel and Draftkrooks: Chance or Skill. DePaul J. Sports L. & Contemp.
Probs.. 2016;12:83.
Costa J. The globalised network of a dirty game: match-fixing, illegal betting and
transnational organised crime in Italian football. Global Crime. 2018 Apr
3;19(2):125-45.
Gareth Davies, Gambling Commission Report on Gambling Regulation: problem gambling and
protecting vulnerable people, 2020.
Gordon R, Gurrieri L, Chapman M. Broadening an understanding of problem gambling:
The lifestyle consumption community of sports betting. Journal of Business
Research. 2015 Oct 1;68(10):2164-72.
Humphreys BR, Perez L. Who bets on sports? Characteristics of sports bettors and the
consequences of expanding sports betting opportunities. Estudios de economía
aplicada. 2012;30(2).
Lopez-Gonzalez H, Estévez A, Griffiths MD. Marketing and advertising online sports
betting: A problem gambling perspective. Journal of Sport and Social Issues.
2017 Jun;41(3):256-72
W1566744Mohamed Ahmed
Lopez-Gonzalez H, Estévez A, Griffiths MD. Marketing and advertising online sports
betting: A problem gambling perspective. Journal of Sport and Social Issues.
2017 Jun;41(3):256-72.
Lopez-Gonzalez H, Griffiths MD. Is European online gambling regulation adequately
addressing in-play betting advertising?. Gaming Law Review and Economics.
2016 Aug 1;20(6):495-503.
Malagorzata A. Carran, The Concept of Vulnerability and gambling-related harm, 2018
Orford J. The Regulation of Gambling in Early Twenty-First Century Britain:
Liberalisation and Its Consequences. InGambling Policies in European Welfare
States 2018 (pp. 241-257). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Schreiber L, Potenza M, Grant J. Gambling Disorder and Other “Behavioral” Addictions.
Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders. 2016 Mar 16.
Schreiber Z. The Time Is Now: Why the United States Should Adopt the British Model of
Sports Betting Legislation. Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. LJ. 2016;27:353.
Spapens T, Olfers M. Match-fixing: The current discussion in Europe and the case of
the Netherlands. European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice.
2015 Nov 17;23(4):333-58.
Theoharis M, ‘Illegal Gambling’ (www.criminaldefenselawyer.com, 2019)
<https://www.criminaldefenselawyer.com/crime-penalties/federal/Illegal-
Gambling.htm> accessed 2 April 2019
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